Abstract
Given the advancements in humanities and social sciences research, conducting comprehensive studies on a single topic has become increasingly challenging. As a result, researchers have turned to systematically combining existing research within a field. The objective of this study was to employ meta-analysis to analyze and draw conclusions from research conducted on the relationship between virtual space and religiosity. To this end, 18 relevant studies from 2011 to 2021 were selected for examination. After assessing the assumptions of homogeneity and publication bias, the results indicated that the effect sizes of the different studies varied, and no evidence of publication bias was found. The results reveal that the effect size of the relationship between virtual space and religiosity is 0.25, which, according to Cohen's interpretation, is considered a medium effect size. Furthermore, considering the year of the study as a moderating variable, the effect size coefficient decreased significantly, and this relationship was also statistically confirmed.
Keywords: Meta-analysis, religiosity, virtual space, effect size, Iran.
Meta-Analysis of Studies on the Relationship Between Virtual Space and Religiosity in Iran During 2011-2021
 
Introduction
In the contemporary era, mass media plays a pivotal role in various dimensions of societal life, and in the post-industrial age, control over communication and information networks is considered a form of power. Among these, virtual space, as a novel technology, has exerted significant influences on the cultural aspects of societies and has gradually become a fundamental platform for communication. Simultaneously, religion, as a core element of individual and social identity, has consistently played a decisive role in shaping human beliefs and behaviors. The expansion of globalization and the penetration of social networks have further highlighted the importance of religion in social interactions and the formation of collective identity. Nevertheless, recent research in Iran indicates a decline in the level of religiosity and religious identity among young people, which could entail negative consequences for society. In this context, the increasing proliferation of virtual space and the dissemination of diverse content underscore the necessity of scientifically investigating the impacts of this space on religiosity, particularly among the youth. The central issue of the present study is to conduct a systematic and comprehensive review of research conducted on the relationship between virtual space and religiosity in Iran during the years 2011 to 2021. The objective of this meta-analysis is to achieve an overall estimate of the magnitude and direction of this relationship, as well as to identify potential moderating factors, especially the year of the study. The main research questions are: 1) What is the overall effect size of the relationship between virtual space and religiosity in studies conducted in Iran during 2011-2021? 2) Does the year of the study, as a moderating variable, influence the effect size of this relationship? The existing research suggests that the interaction between virtual space and religiosity is a complex and multifaceted issue. Some studies emphasize the opportunities that virtual space offers for the dissemination of religious teachings and the creation of online religious communities, while others focus on challenges such as the spread of misinformation, inappropriate content, and the reduction of face-to-face interactions in religious settings. Research conducted in Iran has also shown varying results in this area, highlighting the need for a meta-analysis to achieve a more comprehensive perspective.
 
 
 
Methodology
The present study employed a meta-analysis method to determine the overall effect size of the relationship between virtual space and religiosity and to examine the role of the year of the study as a moderating variable. The statistical population of this research comprised all studies conducted on the relationship between virtual space and religiosity in Iran within the time frame of 2011 to 2021. Following a systematic search in reputable databases and a careful evaluation of inclusion and exclusion criteria, 18 studies (including peer-reviewed journal articles and master's theses) with quantifiable and combinable data were selected for the final analysis. The data collection instrument consisted of the published reports of the 18 selected studies. Information such as the study title, year of publication, sample size, instruments used to measure religiosity and virtual space usage, and the correlation coefficient (r) between these two variables were extracted from each study. For data analysis and the calculation of the overall effect size, the assessment of study homogeneity, the evaluation of publication bias, and the examination of the moderating role of the year of the study, CMA2 (Comprehensive Meta-Analysis version 2) software was utilized. The strength of the relationship between virtual space and religiosity was measured using Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) as the effect size index. According to Cohen's interpretation, an effect size between 0.1 and 0.3 is considered small, between 0.3 and 0.5 is medium, and above 0.5 is large. The Q test and the I² index were used to assess homogeneity. Publication bias was evaluated through funnel plots, Egger's linear regression test, and Begg and Mazumdar's rank correlation test.
 
Discussion and Conclusion
The findings of this meta-analysis suggest that, overall, there has been a medium and negative relationship between the use of virtual space and religiosity in Iran during the years 2011-2021. This finding could be attributed to several factors, such as access to diverse and sometimes contradictory content to religious teachings, reduced face-to-face interactions in religious settings, and the cultural and value influences of virtual space. However, another important finding of this study is the significant decrease in the strength of this negative relationship over time. This may indicate a gradual adaptation of individuals and religious institutions to virtual space, the development of positive uses of this space in line with religious goals, or changes in patterns of virtual space usage. Future research is recommended to more precisely investigate the underlying and mediating factors that may moderate this relationship. Additionally, studying the qualitative developments in how individuals and religious groups interact with virtual space over time could provide valuable insights.
 
Conclusion
The results of the meta-analysis revealed that the overall effect size of the relationship between virtual space and religiosity in the 18 selected studies, using a random-effects model, was -0.256 (95% confidence interval: -0.322 to -0.192). This effect size, according to Cohen's interpretation, is medium and in the negative direction, indicating that, on average, increased use of virtual space was associated with a decrease in the level of religiosity in the studied samples in Iran during 2011-2021. The Q test for homogeneity indicated that the studies were heterogeneous in terms of effect size (Q = 158.149, df = 17, p < 0.001), and the I² index also showed a high value (89.25%), confirming significant heterogeneity among the studies. The assessment of publication bias through funnel plots and statistical tests (Egger's regression and Begg and Mazumdar's rank correlation) did not reveal significant evidence of publication bias. Furthermore, the fail-safe N test indicated that a very large number of studies with a null effect would be needed to invalidate the findings, suggesting the robustness of the results. In examining the role of the year of the study as a moderating variable, meta-regression analysis was employed. The results showed that the year of the study significantly influenced the effect size of the relationship between virtual space and religiosity (Q = 6.33, df = 1, p = 0.011). The effect size coefficient decreased over time, meaning that the strength of the negative relationship between virtual space and religiosity was weaker in more recent studies compared to older studies.